Having fun with amateur radio
A link to this video was posted to the Glowbugs mailing list by Bob, W9RAN. He writes, “I think many of you will enjoy this short film, ‘Mr. Frank, Radio Man,’ which was accepted into the Magic City Shorts Film Festival in Billings, Montana in 2012.
Thanks, Bob!
Here are a couple of Internet resources to start off the week:
W2AEW on YouTube. Alan, W2AEW, has a great selection of cool videos on YouTube. Some of the latest cover the basics of phase-locked loops, how to zero-beat WWV to check out a frequency counter’s accuracy, and a tutorial on resonant circuits. Good stuff!
Baking Pi – Operating Systems Development. This course, published by the University of Cambridge Computer laboratory, is a free online course that takes you through the basics of operating system development. The Web page notes, “[This course] is aimed at people aged 16 and upwards, although younger readers may still find some of it accessible, particularly with assistance….I have tried not to assume any prior knowledge of operating systems development or assembly code. It may be helpful to have some programming experience, but the course should be accessible without.”
Classic Exchange. Mac, WQ8U, wrote to the Glowbugs mailing list, “The Classic Exchange (CX) is a low-key, on-air celebration of rigs of days gone by – particularly boat anchors. The latest CX Newsletter is available on the CX web site, as well as details for the next CX on September 16th (for AM and SSB) and September 23nd (for CW). Please enjoy the newsletter, spread the word and join in the fun during the next CX.”
In the past, sensitivity was one of the most important receiver performance specifications. Today, instead of sensitivity, we speak of a receiver’s minimum discernible signal, or MDS. The MDS of a receiver is the minimum discernible signal. (E4C07) This is the weakest signal that a receiver will detect.
One parameter that affects receiver sensitivity is the noise figure. The noise figure of a receiver is the ratio in dB of the noise generated by the receiver compared to the theoretical minimum noise. (E4C04) Lowering the noise figure of a receiver would improve weak signal sensitivity. (E4C08)
A related specification is the noise floor. When we say that the noise floor of a receiver has a value of -174 dBm/Hz, it is referring to the theoretical noise at the input of a perfect receiver at room temperature. (E4C05) If a CW receiver with the AGC off has an equivalent input noise power density of -174 dBm/Hz, the level of an unmodulated carrier input to this receiver would have to be -148 dBm to yield an audio output SNR of 0 dB in a 400 Hz noise bandwidth. (E4C06)
A receiver’s selectivity is the result of a lot of things, including the filters a receiver has. 300 Hz is a desirable amount of selectivity for an amateur RTTY HF receiver. (E4C10)2.4 kHz is a desirable amount of selectivity for an amateur SSB phone receiver.(E4C11)
In addition to a 300 Hz filter and a 2.4 kHz filter, high-end receivers also have filters called roofing filters. A narrow-band roofing filter affects receiver performance because it improves dynamic range by attenuating strong signals near the receive frequency. (E4C13)
Back in the day, when superheterodyne receivers had intermediate frequencies, or IFs, in the 400 – 500 kHz range, image rejection was a problem. If there was a strong signal present on a frequency about two times the IF away from the frequency your receiver was tuned to, you might hear that signal. Accordingly, 15.210 MHz is a frequency on which a station might be transmitting if is generating a spurious image signal in a receiver tuned to 14.300 MHz and which uses a 455 kHz IF frequency. (E4C14)
One solution to this problem is to select an IF higher in frequency. One good reason for selecting a high frequency for the design of the IF in a conventional HF or VHF communications receiver is that it is easier for front-end circuitry to eliminate image responses. (E4C09) A front-end filter or pre-selector of a receiver can also be effective in eliminating image signal interference. (E4C02)
Another way to get rid of image signals is to use a narrow IF filter. An undesirable effect of using too wide a filter bandwidth in the IF section of a receiver is that undesired signals may be heard. (E4C12)
Because most modern transceivers use digital techniques to generate a local oscillator signal to tune a receiver, synthesizer phase noise might be a problem. An effect of excessive phase noise in the local oscillator section of a receiver is that it can cause strong signals on nearby frequencies to interfere with reception of weak signals. (E4C01)
Finally, here are two miscellaneous questions on receiver performance characteristics. Atmospheric noise is the primary source of noise that can be heard from an HF receiver with an antenna connected. (E4C15) Capture effect is the term for the blocking of one FM phone signal by another, stronger FM phone signal. (E4C03)
Morse Code is arguably the original digital mode. Morse code is a digital code consists of elements having unequal length. (E8C01) One advantage of using Morse Code is that it is very narrow bandwidth. The bandwidth necessary for a 13-WPM international Morse code transmission is approximately 52 Hz. (E8C05)
The next oldest digital mode is radioteletype, or RTTY. RTTY uses a five-bit code called Baudot. Most modern digital devices these days use ASCII, which is a 7-bit or 8-bit code. Some of the differences between the Baudot digital code and ASCII are that Baudot uses five data bits per character, ASCII uses seven or eight; Baudot uses two characters as shift codes, ASCII has no shift code. (E8C02) One advantage of using the ASCII code for data communications is that it is possible to transmit both upper and lower case text. (E8C03)
The reason that some ASCII transmissions have only seven bits, while others use eight bits is that the eighth bit is a parity bit. The advantage of including a parity bit with an ASCII character stream is that some types of errors can be detected. (E8C12)
The bandwidth needed for ASCII digital transmissions increases as the data rate increases. The bandwidth necessary for a 170-hertz shift, 300-baud ASCII transmission is 0.5 kHz. (E8C06) The bandwidth necessary for a 4800-Hz frequency shift, 9600-baud ASCII FM transmission is 15.36 kHz. (E8C07)
PSK has become a very popular digital mode. One reason for this is that it occupies a very narrow bandwidth – only 31 Hz. One technique used to minimize the bandwidth requirements of a PSK31 signal is the use of sinusoidal data pulses. (E8C04)
An up-and-coming digital mode is JT-65, named after its inventor, Nobel Prize winner and amateur radio operator, Joe Taylor, K1JT. It uses 65 different tones spread over a bandwidth of 175 Hz. One advantage of using JT-65 coding is the ability to decode signals which have a very low signal to noise ratio. (E8C13)
Spread-spectrum communication is a wide-bandwidth communications system in which the transmitted carrier frequency varies according to some predetermined sequence. (E8C08) Direct sequence is a spread-spectrum communications technique uses a high speed binary bit stream to shift the phase of an RF carrier. (E8C11) Frequency hopping is a spread-spectrum communications technique alters the center frequency of a conventional carrier many times per second in accordance with a pseudo-random list of channels. (E8C10) Spread-spectrum techniques causes a digital signal to appear as wide-band noise to a conventional receiver. (E8C09)
Perhaps the most popular digital mode these days is PSK31. PSK stands for “phase shift keying.” One of its main advantages is that it had a very narrow bandwidth—only 31 Hz. In fact, PSK31 is the digital communications mode that has the narrowest bandwidth. (E2E10)
One of the ways is achieves this narrow bandwidth is that uses variable length coding. That is to say, characters have different numbers of bits, depending on how frequently they appear in normal text. PSK31 is an HF digital mode that uses variable-length coding for bandwidth efficiency. (E2E09)
Another type of modulation commonly used on the HF bands is frequency-shift keying, or FSK. RTTY, for example uses FSK modulation. FSK is a type of modulation that is common for data emissions below 30 MHz. (E2E01) One type of FSK modulation is MFSK16. The typical bandwidth of a properly modulated MFSK16 signal is 316 Hz. (E2E07)
Amateur transceivers use two different methods to modulate a signal using FSK: direct FSK and audio FSK. The difference between direct FSK and audio FSK is that direct FSK applies the data signal to the transmitter VFO. (E2E11) When using audio FSK, audio, typically from a computer sound card, is used to shift the frequency of the transmitted signal.
To tune an FSK signal, one often uses a crossed-ellipse display. You have properly tuned a signal when one of the ellipses is as vertical as possible, and the other is as horizontal as possible. When one of the ellipses in an FSK crossed-ellipse display suddenly disappears, selective fading has occurred. (E2E04)
PACTOR is one digital mode that uses FSK. It also uses the ARQ protocol to detect errors. Because of this, PACTOR is an HF digital mode that can be used to transfer binary files. (E2E08) How does ARQ accomplish error correction? If errors are detected, a retransmission is requested. (E2E05)
Another way to detect and correct errors in a data transmission is forward error correction. The letters FEC mean Forward Error Correction when talking about digital operation. (E2E02) Forward Error Correction is implemented by transmitting extra data that may be used to detect and correct transmission errors. (E2E03)
No matter what type of modulation you use, data transmission over an HF radio link is very slow. 300 baud is the most common data rate used for HF packet communications. (E2E06) In fact, due to bandwidth limitations, 300 baud is the maximum data rate.
Many of the digital modes were designed to allow keyboard-to-keyboard operation. That is to say, that operators can type messages back and forth to one another, almost as if they were having a conversation using SSB. Winlink, however, does not support keyboard-to-keyboard operation. (E2E12)
One of the most commonly understood concepts in digital communications is the baud. A baud is not equal to a bit per second, except for very simple systems. Rather, the definition of baud is the number of data symbols transmitted per second. (E2D02) A data symbol may represent multiple bits.
The baud rate is a measure of how fast a digital communications system can transmit data. Under clear communications conditions, 300-baud packet is the digital communication mode that has the fastest data throughput. (E2D09)
In the past ten years or so, we’ve had an explosion of digital modes become available. JT65 is one example. JT65 is a digital mode especially useful for EME communications. (E2D03) JT65 improves EME communications because it can decode signals many dB below the noise floor using FEC.(E2D12) FSK441 is a digital mode especially designed for use for meteor scatter signals. (E2D01)
One of the most popular digital modes is the Automatic Packet Reporting System, or APRS. AX.25 is the digital protocol used by APRS. AX.25 is more commonly known as packet radio. (E2D07) Unnumbered Information is the type of packet frame used to transmit APRS beacon data. (E2D08)
APRS stations can be used to help support a public service communications activity. An APRS station with a GPS unit can automatically transmit information to show a mobile station’s position during the event. (E2D10) Latitude and longitude are used by the APRS network to communicate your location. (E2D11) 144.39 MHz is a commonly used 2-meter APRS frequency. (E2D06)
Amateurs that enjoy satellite communications also use digital modes. For example, store-and-forward is a technique normally used by low Earth orbiting digital satellites to relay messages around the world. (E2D05) The purpose of digital store-and-forward functions on an Amateur Radio satellite is to store digital messages in the satellite for later download by other stations. (E2D04)
Where: Atlanta, GA Sheraton Gateway Hotel Atlanta Airport 1900 Sullivan Road Atlanta, GA 30337
When: September 21 – 23, 2012
Website: www.tapr.org/dcc
Technical / Introductory Sessions Schedule http://www.tapr.org/pdf/DCC_2012_Schedule.pdf
Technical Sessions Friday – Saturday: Introductory Sessions
Saturday Night Banquet Speaker & Topic: http://www.tapr.org/dcc#banquet
DCC Saturday Night Banquet Speaker will be Bdale Garbee, KB0G talking about the “Sharing the Joy of Making.”
Sunday Morning Seminar Speaker & Topic: http://www.tapr.org/dcc#seminar
DCC Sunday Morning Seminar will be a hands-on tutorial using Gnuradio to design and implement software defined radios on your laptop presented by Tom Rondeau, KB3UKZ, the leader of the Gnuradio project.
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a device that uses an electric field to control current flow through the device. Like the bipolar transistor, a FET normally has three terminals. The names of the three terminals of a field-effect transistor are gate, drain, source. (E6A17)
FETs are normally made with a technology called Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor, or CMOS. The initials CMOS stand for Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor. (E6A13) FETs made with CMOS technology are sometimes call MOSFETs.
In Figure E6-2 (below), schematic symbol 1 is the symbol for a P-channel junction FET. (E6A11) In Figure E6-2 (below), schematic symbol 4 is the symbol for an N-channel dual-gate MOSFET. (E6A10)
One characteristic of the MOSFET is that they have a high input impedance. This makes them more attractive for use in many test equipment applications than bipolar transistors. How does DC input impedance at the gate of a field-effect transistor compare with the DC input impedance of a bipolar transistor? An FET has high input impedance; a bipolar transistor has low input impedance. (E6A14)
One disadvantage of using MOSFETs is that they are very sensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD). Sometimes, they are damaged by static discharges so low that you never even see the spark or feel the shock. To reduce the chance of the gate insulation being punctured by static discharges or excessive voltages many MOSFET devices have internally connected Zener diodes on the gates. (E6A12)
Most FETs are enhancement-mode devices. When using an enhancement-mode FET, you must apply a voltage to the gate to get current to flow from source to drain. Some FETs are, however, depletion mode devices. A depletion-mode FET is an FET that exhibits a current flow between source and drain when no gate voltage is applied. (E6A09)
Noise is often a real problem for radio amateurs. Fortunately, by understanding how noise is generated and how to reduce or eliminate it, noise can be tamed.
Atmospheric noise is naturally-occurring noise. Thunderstorms are a major cause of atmospheric static. (E4E06) There’s not much you can do to eliminate, but you can often use a receiver’s noise blanker to help you copy signals better. Signals which appear across a wide bandwidth (like atmospheric noise) are the types of signals that a receiver noise blanker might be able to remove from desired signals. (E4E03) Ignition noise is one type of receiver noise that can often be reduced by use of a receiver noise blanker. (E4E01)
One undesirable effect that can occur when using an IF noise blanker is that nearby signals may appear to be excessively wide even if they meet emission standards. (E4E09)
Many modern receivers now use digital signal processing (DSP) filters to eliminate noise. All of these choices are correct when talking about types of receiver noise can often be reduced with a DSP noise filter (E4E02):
One disadvantage of using some types of automatic DSP notch-filters when attempting to copy CW signals is that the DSP filter can remove the desired signal at the same time as it removes interfering signals. (E4E12)
While filters can be very effective at reducing noise, it is often better to figure out what is generating the noise and taking steps to reduce or eliminate the amount of noise generated in the first place. For example, one way you can determine if line noise interference is being generated within your home is by turning off the AC power line main circuit breaker and listening on a battery operated radio. (E4E07) If by doing this you determine that an electric motor is a problem, noise from an electric motor can be suppressed by installing a brute-force AC-line filter in series with the motor leads. (E4E05)
All of these choices are correct when it comes to the cause of a loud roaring or buzzing AC line interference that comes and goes at intervals (E4E13):
Sometimes your own equipment may be the cause of received noise. A common-mode signal at the frequency of the radio transmitter is sometimes picked up by electrical wiring near a radio antenna. (E4E08)
The main source of noise in an automobile is the alternator. Conducted and radiated noise caused by an automobile alternator be suppressed by connecting the radio’s power leads directly to the battery and by installing coaxial capacitors in line with the alternator leads. (E4E04)
Personal computer and other digital devices can also generate noise. One type of electrical interference that might be caused by the operation of a nearby personal computer is the appearance of unstable modulated or unmodulated signals at specific frequencies. (E4E14) All of these choices are correct when talking about common characteristics of interference caused by a touch controlled electrical device (with an internal microprocessor) (E4E10):
Noise can even be generated by the most unlikely things. For example, it is mostly likely that nearby corroded metal joints are mixing and re-radiating the broadcast signals if you are hearing combinations of local AM broadcast signals within one or more of the MF or HF ham bands. (E4E11)
In FM modulation, the two primary parameters of interest are deviation ratio and modulation index. Deviation ratio is the ratio of the maximum carrier frequency deviation to the highest audio modulating frequency. (E8B09) The deviation ratio of an FM-phone signal having a maximum frequency swing of plus-or-minus 5 kHz when the maximum modulation frequency is 3 kHz is 1.67. (E8B05)The deviation ratio of an FM-phone signal having a maximum frequency swing of plus or minus 7.5 kHz when the maximum modulation frequency is 3.5 kHz is 2.14. (E8B06)
The term for the ratio between the frequency deviation of an RF carrier wave, and the modulating frequency of its corresponding FM-phone signal is modulation index. (E8B01) The modulation index is equal to the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency. The modulation index of a phase-modulated emission does not depend on the RF carrier frequency. (E8B02)
The modulation index of an FM-phone signal having a maximum frequency deviation of 3000 Hz either side of the carrier frequency, when the modulating frequency is 1000 Hz is 3. (E8B03) The modulation index of an FM-phone signal having a maximum carrier deviation of plus or minus 6 kHz when modulated with a 2-kHz modulating frequency is 3. (E8B04)
Some amateur radio communications are pulse-width modulated. That is to say that the information being sent is proportional to the time the carrier is on. When using a pulse-width modulation system, the transmitter’s peak power greater than its average power because the signal duty cycle is less than 100%. (E8B07)
Some signals are pulse-position modulated. That is to say, what is significant is when the pulse occurs. The time at which each pulse occurs is the parameter that the modulating signal varies in a pulse-position modulation system. (E8B08)
Frequency division multiplexing is one method that can be used to combine several separate analog information streams into a single analog radio frequency signal. (E8B10) When a system uses frequency division multiplexing, two or more information streams are merged into a “baseband,” which then modulates the transmitter. (E8B11)
When a system uses digital time division multiplexing, two or more signals are arranged to share discrete time slots of a data transmission. (E8B12)
Thanks to my latest donor!
Bob, KD8THG
He writes, "Thank you! I used your General Class study guide and passed the exam last night. Your teaching style is very accessible and effective. Your work is in the best Elmer tradition."
Donate $5 and get this cool sticker. Measuring 5-3/4-in. W by 4-1/4-in. H, it's perfect for your car, your shack, or wherever!
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